Which of the following statements regarding nutritional requirements in infants are true?

a. The total daily water requirement is estimated to be 100 ml/100 kcal ingested

b. The resting energy expenditure is approximately twice that of an adult

c. The highest rate of nitrogen retention with parenteral nutrition occurs in infants given approximately 40% of the calories as carbohydrate and the remainder as fat

d. The protein requirement for a newborn infant is approximately 2.5 g/kg/day

Taking all factors into account, total daily water requirements for a term infant are estimated to be 100 ml/100 kcal ingested, assuming an insensible loss of 50 ml/kg/day and a growth requirement of approximately of 15 ml/kg/day. The energy expenditure of normal neonates is approximately twice that of normal adults (50 kcal/kg/day versus 25 kcal/kg/day). In most circumstances, high carbohydrate/low fat ratios in parenteral nutrition result in high rates of energy expenditure and decreased nitrogen retention, while low carbohydrate/high fat ratios result in excessive fat deposition. A balanced ratio (approximately 40% carbohydrate) provides the highest rate of nitrogen retention, and is consistent with the proportion of carbohydrate found in breast milk and with the estimates of minimal carbohydrate needs determined by isotope infusion studies. A consensus statement by the World Health Organization and the United Nations University estimates the protein requirement at 2.5 g/kg/day for an infant and 1.25 g/kg/day for a one-year-old child. For preterm infants, the protein need ranges from 2.5 to 3.9 g/kg/day if the weight is less than 2.5 kg.