Which of the following is/are true with regard to diabetes mellitus as a risk factor for atherosclerosis?

a. Atherosclerosis is the cause of death in approximately 75% of diabetic persons

b. Following a myocardial infarction diabetic persons have a higher rate of in-hospital mortality and a higher five year mortality than nondiabetic persons

c. The length of time one has diabetes appears to be a factor for the development of atherosclerosis whereas the severity of the diabetes appears to have little relationship to the development of vascular disease

d. The impact of diabetes on the development of vascular disease appears greater in women than in men

Atherosclerosis is the most common complication of diabetes developing in almost 85% of the patients who survive more than 20 years after the diagnosis. Atherosclerotic complications are the cause of death in 75% of diabetic persons; in the general population artherosclerotic complications account for about one-third of all deaths. Diabetic persons fare less well after a myocardial infarction with significant increases in-hospital mortality and decreases in five year survival. The impact of diabetes on cardiovascular complications seems to be proportionate to the duration of the diabetes rather than the severity of the diabetes and women diabetics fare markedly less well than men with diabetes. In men, diabetes is the least important of the major risk factors whereas in women the impact of diabetes exceeds that of cigarette smoking.