Which of the following statement(s) is/are true concerning the association of gallstones with gallbladder cancer?

b.Calcification of the wall of the gallbladder is associated with an increased incidence of gallbladder cancer

c.Larger gallstones are associated with a greater risk of gallbladder cancer than smaller gallstones

The association of gallstones with gallbladder cancer is well known. Seventy to ninety percent of patients with gallbladder cancer have gallstones. The association of gallstones with cancer may be related to gallstone size, with larger stones having a greater cancer risk. The 20-year risk of developing gallbladder carcinoma in patients with gallstones has been estimated to be in the range of 0.13% for the general population. It is evident that this small risk of developing gallbladder cancer in patients with gallstones, even over the long-term, does not warrant routine cholecystectomy in all patients with gallstones. Calcification of the wall of the gallbladder, the so-called porcelain gallbladder, is associated with a 25% to 60% incidence of gallbladder cancer. In the presence of a porcelain gallbladder, a cholecystectomy should be performed unless contraindicated for other reasons.