Which of the following cause visceral pain from the abdominal organs?

a. Stretching and contraction

b. Traction, compression, torsion

d. Certain chemicals

Abdominal pain can be divided into three categories; visceral, somatic, and referred. The intramural sensory receptors of the abdominal organs are responsible for visceral pain. A diverse group of destructive stimuli to the abdominal viscera are painless. For example, almost all abdominal organs are insensitive to pinching, burning, stabbing, cutting, and electrical and thermal stimulation. The same is true for the application of acid and alkali to normal mucosa. The general classes of visceral stimulation that result in abdominal pain include: (1) stretching and contraction; (2) traction, compression, and torsion; (3) stretch alone; and (4) certain chemicals. Mediating receptors for these responses are located intramurally in hollow organs, on serosal structures such as the visceral peritoneum and capsule of solid organs, within the mesentery and the mucosa. These receptors are polymodal, or responsive to both mechanical and chemical stimuli. Mucosal receptors respond primarily to chemical stimulation. Visceral pain almost always heralds intra-abdominal disease but may not indicate the need for surgical therapy. When visceral pain is superceded by somatic pain, the need for surgical intervation becomes likely.